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Sporting individual

 

Introduction
Although sufficient intake of omega-3 fatty acids is important for everyone, the stress that athletes frequently put their body under makes it all the more important for them to have an adequate omega-3 index. DHA influences tissues and organs of the body that are all critical to athletic performance. It is incorporated in the membranes of our cells, modulating cellular signaling pathways, inflammation resolution, and neurotransmission (Jäger et al. 2025). Furthermore, DHA serves as a precursor to specialized pro-resolving mediators that facilitate tissue repair, counter inflammation, and restore homeostasis following exercise-induced stress (Tomczyk et al. 2023). Despite this, athletes frequently demonstrate suboptimal Omega-3 index; a measure that indicates the percentage of Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA in red blood cells. Whereas an Omega-3 index of 8% or higher is considered optimal, a study by Ritz and colleagues showed that amongst 1528 athletes of the American National Collegiate Athletic Association had an average Omega-3 index of 4.33 ± 0.81% (Ritz et al. 2020). The chapters below highlight how Omega-3 fatty acids, DHA in particular, can support exercise performance and recovery in various domains relevant to athletes. 

Recovery from exercise
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and exercise-induced muscle damage significantly impact training capacity and sport performance. Scientific studies point out that DHA supplementation can contribute to a decrease in markers of muscle damage, and accelerate recovery from exercise. Ramos-Campo and colleagues conducted a randomized crossover trial examining 10 weeks of DHA-rich supplementation (2.1 g/day DHA + 240 mg/day EPA) in endurance athletes following eccentric-induced muscle damage (Ramos-Campo et al. 2020). A total of 15 athletes participated, who received either the supplementation or a placebo for 10 weeks. After a wash-out period of 4 weeks, each participant received the opposite treatment of the first 10 weeks. Using this design, supplementation effects can be analysed per person to limit any differences that are the result of biological variation. The authors reported that after the 10-week supplementation, the DHA group exhibited significantly lower interleukin-1β and interleukin-6 concentrations compared to placebo, which are markers of inflammation. Additionally, creatine phosphokinase and lactate dehydrogenase-5 values, markers of muscle damage, remained significantly lower in the DHA-supplemented group. Finally, the DHA group reported reduced subjective muscle soreness following exercise after the 10 week supplementation period. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that supplementation with DHA may counter muscle damage and help athletes with DOMS.

Respiratory Capacity
Respiratory capacity, typically assessed through maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), represents an important aspect of aerobic performance. Evidence suggests that DHA may have potential benefits for oxygen utilization efficiency. The proposed mechanisms involve improvements in red blood cell deformability, enhanced pulmonary function, and optimized cardiovascular responses to exercise.
In a cross-over study, Zebrowska and fellow investigators discovered that omega-3 supplementation improved maximal oxygen uptake in endurance-trained athletes during pre-season regular training (Żebrowska et al. 2015). A group of 13 participants was given either 1.3g EPA and 1g DHA or a placebo daily for three weeks, followed by a washout period of 2 weeks and then 3 weeks of the opposite treatment given in the first three weeks. At the beginning and end of each intervention, various pulmonary function markers were assessed, including serum nitric oxide and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Serum nitric oxide levels are an indicator of blood vessel function, where high levels correspond to better blood vessel relaxation and expansion. The VO2max refers to the maximum amount of oxygen one’s body can use during intense exercise. The authors reported that in each group receiving the Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, improvements were seen in serum nitric oxide levels and the VO2max compared to the placebo. This means that the participating athletes had increased parameters of respiratory capacity following supplementation with EPA and DHA.

Muscle Atrophy
The function of our muscles underlies nearly all forms of sport. As such, muscle wasting, also referred to as (skeletal) muscle atrophy, can be a significant concern for athletes during periods of inactiveness or injury. DHA has demonstrated protective effects against muscle wasting through multiple mechanisms. In a study by McGlory and colleagues, the influence of Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on muscle mass changes during immobilization in trained young women was investigated  (Mcglory et al. 2019). In this trial, a group of twenty women with a mean age of 22 years had one of their legs immobilised for a period of two weeks. Starting 4 weeks before the immobilisation, the participants received either 3g EPA and 2g  DHA per day (the supplementation group), or sunflower oil (the control group). Starting from the supplementation period until 2 weeks after the immobilisation, muscle biopsies were taken and muscle volume was assessed. It was found that after the immobilisation period, the group receiving DHA and EPA showed a significantly smaller decline in muscle volume of the immobilised leg compared to the control group, 8% versus 14% respectively. Muscle mass reduced significantly in the control group, but not in the supplementation group. Moreover, the muscle biopsies showed that the supplementation group had higher levels of myofibrillar protein production at all times compared to the control group. This protein is key to muscle function, indicating that supplementation helped to preserve muscle volume, mass and function during immobilisation. Supplementation with Omega-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA may therefore be beneficial for athletes who are recovering from an injury, or have to not use a certain muscle group for a while. 

In a clinical trial by Heileson and fellow scientists, the effects of EPA and DHA supplementation in combination with resistance exercise training were investigated in healthy adults between 18 and 40 years of age (Heileson et al. 2023). During a 10 week resistance exercise training regime, 21 men and women were given either a daily placebo or 2.2g EPA and 1.6g DHA per day. Muscle strength was assessed by the maximum barbell back squat and bench press weight (both absolute weight and relative to body mass) at the beginning and end of the 10-week supplementation period. The authors reported that the supplementation group showed a greater improvement in absolute and relative maximum barbell back squat and bench press weight compared to the placebo group after 10 weeks. Whereas the placebo group showed an improvement of 9.7% in absolute strength and 7.3% relative strength, the supplementation group showed an improvement of 17.7% in absolute strength and 17.6% in relative strength. The improvement in strength measured in the control group is to be expected, as this is a typical effect of resistance exercise training. Nevertheless, the finding of greater relative improvement in the supplementation group indicates that EPA and DHA may enhance the effects of resistance exercise training on muscle strength.

Endurance Sport
Endurance performance depends upon the many different aspects of our body working together, including cardiovascular function, metabolic efficiency, and recovery capacity. DHA supplementation trials have shown promising results for enhancing several parameters relevant to endurance athletes. 

In a double blind intervention study executed by Avila-Gandia and collaborators, the effects of DHA-rich Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on performance improvements in amateur cyclists were examined (Ávila-Gandía et al. 2020).  A cohort of 38 cyclists competing at amateur level were split in a supplementation group and a placebo group. For a period of 1 month, 18 participants received 975mg DHA and 120mg EPA daily (supplementation group) and 20 participants received capsules containing sunflower oil (placebo group). Baseline and post-supplementation exercise performance was measured by means of mean power output at ventilatory threshold 2 (VT2), as well as heart rate recovery rate during the recovery phase. The VT2 refers to the point in which pulmonary ventilation (breathing) increases at a faster rate than the oxygen uptake. Both compared to the baseline measurement and the placebo group, the supplementation group showed a higher mean power output at VT2, meaning that more power was produced until the point was reached where one starts breathing faster than one can actually take up oxygen. Furthermore, the rate of heart rate recovery was greater in the supplementation group compared to the placebo group at the end of the supplementation period. 

In a supplementation trial executed by Blannin and fellow scientists, the effects of EPA-rich and DHA-rich supplements on performance in amateur endurance athletes were researched  (Blannin, Boulton, and Thielecke 2025). A total of 55 amateur endurance athletes received supplementation with either 3 g/day of either EPA-rich oil, or DHA-rich oil or a placebo (coconut oil) for six weeks. Before and after this, endurance exercise performance parameters were assessed, including submaximal exercise heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and a time-trial.  It was found that compared to the placebo, both formulations significantly increased the Omega-3 Index and reduced submaximal exercise heart rate and rating of perceived exertion. Although a time trial conducted at the end of the supplementation period did not show significant differences between groups, all three groups improved their performance. 

Reaction Time
In many sports, reaction time is of the utmost importance. Reaction time depends not only on processing the input that is given (such as a ball that is coming towards you), but also on giving the correct output to the muscles (such as moving your leg to kick the ball). As DHA accounts for 10-20% of the total lipid weight of our brain, it is perhaps not surprising that DHA has been found to support many processes executed by our central nervous system. One of these processes positively affected by DHA is reaction time, as discovered by Guzmán and colleagues (Guzmán et al. 2011). In a double-blind study, they examined the effects of DHA supplementation on reaction time in female elite soccer players. A group of 24 female elite soccer players was evenly divided and received either 3.5g per day of DHA-rich fish oil (supplementation group) or olive oil (control group) for a period of 4 weeks, during which normal training was continued. Before and after the supplementation period, complex reaction time and precision were assessed. Both compared to the baseline measurement and to the control group, the supplementation group showed significant improvements in reaction time to visual and auditory stimuli.  The authors concluded that DHA gave the participants perceptual-motor benefits; this is very relevant to sports requiring rapid decision-making and reaction time efficiency such as football. 

Sports-related brain damage
A number of contact sports commonly expose participants to repetitive head impacts, such as boxing, football, or rugby. This can be detrimental to the health of the brain, severely increasing the risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders. The effects of DHA supplementation on markers of brain damage associated with repetitive head impact in American-style football were investigated by Heileson and fellow scientists, reporting positive results (Heileson et al. 2021). Two American-style football teams of 31 and 35 players participated in the study. For a period of 131 days (including pre-season and active season), one team received Omega-3 supplementation (2g DHA, 0.56g EPA and 0.32g DPA) for at least 4 times per week; the other team served as control. Blood samples were taken during pre-season and active season to measure levels of neurofilament light. This is a protein from the brain that is used as a marker of brain damage. It was found that at various timepoints, the group of athletes receiving the Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation showed lower levels of neurofilament light in their blood, suggesting a protective effect against brain damage. Moreover, compared to baseline, the supplementation group did not show a significant increase in neurofilament light at any of the measured time points. This suggests that Omega-3 fatty acids such as DHA may offer some protection to the brain in the face of repetitive impacts to the head. 

Conclusion
As the studies highlighted above have shown, docosahexaenoic acid has positive effects on many facets of athletic performance and recovery, either through dietary intake or via supplementation. These include preventing muscle atrophy during periods of inactiveness, improving recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage, potentially enhancing aspects of respiratory and cardiovascular function during exercise, supporting endurance capacity through improved exercise economy, improving reaction time, and countering brain damage from repetitive head impacts. 

Current evidence suggests that athletes should target daily intakes of 1-3 g combined EPA and DHA, with potential benefits for higher doses (up to 6 g/day) in heavily training or contact sport athletes  (Jäger et al. 2025). Depending on the organ or tissue, the body can take up to a few weeks to appropriately incorporate DHA following supplementation, especially in persons who have a poor Omega-3 index. As such, chronic rather than acute supplementation protocols appear most appropriate for athletes. People with a sportive lifestyle could consider obtaining baseline Omega-3 index measurements to assess individual status and guide supplementation strategies, with target values above 8% associated with optimal health and performance outcomes (Harris 2025).

References
Ávila-Gandía, Vicente, Antonio Torregrosa-García, Antonio J. Luque-Rubia, María Salud Abellán-Ruiz, Desirée Victoria-Montesinos, and F. Javier López-Román. 2020. “Re-Esterified DHA Improves Ventilatory Threshold 2 in Competitive Amateur Cyclists.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 17:51. doi:10.1186/s12970-020-00379-0.

Blannin, Andrew, George Boulton, and Frank Thielecke. 2025. “Six Weeks of Either EPA-Rich or DHA-Rich Omega-3 Supplementation Alters Submaximal Exercise Physiology in Endurance Trained Male Amateurs.” Frontiers in Nutrition 12. doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1588421.

Guzmán, José F., Hector Esteve, Carlos Pablos, Ana Pablos, Cristina Blasco, and José A. Villegas. 2011. “DHA- Rich Fish Oil Improves Complex Reaction Time in Female Elite Soccer Players.” Journal of Sports Science & Medicine 10(2):301–5.

Harris, William S. 2025. “Recent Studies Confirm the Utility of the Omega-3 Index.” Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 28(2):91. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000001078.

Heileson, Jeffery L., Anthony J. Anzalone, Aaron F. Carbuhn, Andrew T. Askow, Jason D. Stone, Stephanie M. Turner, Lyn M. Hillyer, David W. L. Ma, Joel A. Luedke, Andrew R. Jagim, and Jonathan M. Oliver. 2021. “The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on a Biomarker of Head Trauma in NCAA Football Athletes: A Multi-Site, Non-Randomized Study.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 18(1):65. doi:10.1186/s12970-021-00461-1.

Heileson, Jeffery L., Steven B. Machek, Dillon R. Harris, Sara Tomek, Leticia C. de Souza, Adam J. Kieffer, Nicholas D. Barringer, Andrew Gallucci, Jeffrey S. Forsse, and LesLee K. Funderburk. 2023. “The Effect of Fish Oil Supplementation on Resistance Training-Induced Adaptations.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 20(1):2174704. doi:10.1080/15502783.2023.2174704.

Jäger, Ralf, Jeffery L. Heileson, Sidney Abou Sawan, Broderick L. Dickerson, Megan Leonard, Richard B. Kreider, Chad M. Kerksick, Stephen M. Cornish, Darren G. Candow, Dean M. Cordingley, Scott C. Forbes, Grant M. Tinsley, Tindaro Bongiovanni, Roberto Cannataro, Bill I. Campbell, Shawn M. Arent, Jeffrey R. Stout, Douglas S. Kalman, and Jose Antonio. 2025. “International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Long-Chain Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 22(1):2441775. doi:10.1080/15502783.2024.2441775.

Mcglory, Chris, Stefan H. M. Gorissen, Michael Kamal, Ravninder Bahniwal, Amy J. Hector, Steven K. Baker, Adrian Chabowski, and Stuart M. Phillips. 2019. “Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Attenuates Skeletal Muscle Disuse Atrophy during Two Weeks of Unilateral Leg Immobilization in Healthy Young Women.” The FASEB Journal 33(3):4586–97. doi:10.1096/fj.201801857RRR.

Ramos-Campo, Domingo J., Vicente Ávila-Gandía, Fco Javier López-Román, José Miñarro, Carlos Contreras, Fulgencio Soto-Méndez, Joan C. Domingo Pedrol, and Antonio J. Luque-Rubia. 2020. “Supplementation of Re-Esterified Docosahexaenoic and Eicosapentaenoic Acids Reduce Inflammatory and Muscle Damage Markers after Exercise in Endurance Athletes: A Randomized, Controlled Crossover Trial.” Nutrients 12(3):719. doi:10.3390/nu12030719.

Ritz, Peter P., Mark B. Rogers, Jennifer S. Zabinsky, Valisa E. Hedrick, John A. Rockwell, Ernest G. Rimer, Samantha B. Kostelnik, Matthew W. Hulver, and Michelle S. Rockwell. 2020. “Dietary and Biological Assessment of the Omega-3 Status of Collegiate Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Analysis.” PLOS ONE 15(4):e0228834. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0228834.

Scofield, Kirk L., and Suzanne Hecht. 2012. “Bone Health in Endurance Athletes: Runners, Cyclists, and Swimmers.” Current Sports Medicine Reports 11(6):328. doi:10.1249/JSR.0b013e3182779193.
Tomczyk, Maja, Jeffery L. Heileson, Mirosław Babiarz, and Philip C. Calder. 2023. “Athletes Can Benefit from Increased Intake of EPA and DHA—Evaluating the Evidence.” Nutrients 15(23):4925. doi:10.3390/nu15234925.

Żebrowska, Aleksandra, Katarzyna Mizia-Stec, Magda Mizia, Zbigniew Gąsior, and Stanisław Poprzęcki. 2015. “Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation Improves Endothelial Function and Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Endurance-Trained Athletes.” European Journal of Sport Science 15(4):305–14. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.949310.